The Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal (Hindi: ताज महल, Persian, Urdu: تاج محل & IPA['ta:dʒ mə'ha:l]) is a monument located in Agra in India, constructed between 1631 and 1654 by a workforce of 20,000. The Muslim Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned its construction as a mausoleum for his favorite wife, Arjumand Bano Begum, who is better known as Mumtaz Mahal.

The Taj Mahal (sometimes called "the Taj") is generally considered the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements of Indian and Persian architectures. The Taj Mahal has achieved special note because of the romance of its inspiration. While the white domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar part of the monument, the Taj Mahal is actually a complex of elements.


Origin and inspiration

Shah Jahan, who commissioned the monument, was a prolific patron with effectively limitless resources. He had previously created the gardens and palaces of Shalimar in honor of his wife, Mumtaz. After her death in childbirth (she had already borne him fourteen children) Shah Jahan was reportedly inconsolable, and soon after he began construction of the Taj Mahal. His lavish aesthetic and romantic nature is apparent in every aspect of the Taj Mahal. Visiting Agra in 1663, the French traveller François Bernier gave the following description of the Taj Mahal and Shah Jahan's motive for building it:


"I shall finish this letter with a description of the two wonderful mausoleums which constitute the chief superiority of Agra over Delhi. One was erected by Jehan-guyre [sic] in honour of his father Ekbar; and Chah-Jehan raised the other to the memory of his wife Tage Mehale, that extraordinary and celebrated beauty, of whom her husband was so enamoured it is said that he was constant to her during life, and at her death was so affected as nearly to follow her to the grave"

Influences on Taj Mahal design

The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on many design traditions, particularly Islamic, Persian, Hindu and earlier Mughal architecture.

The overall design derived inspiration from a number of successful Timurid and Mughal buildings: these include the Gur-e Amir, Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and his own Jama Masjid. Under Shah Jahan's patronage, Mughal building reached new levels of refinement:, previous Mughal building had primarily been constructed of red sandstone; Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones.


Hindu craftsmen, particularly sculptors and stonecutters, plied trade throughout Asia during this period, and their work was particularly prized by tomb builders. Whilst the rock-cut architecture which characterises much of this construction had little or no influence on the Taj Mahal, other Indian buildings such as the Man Singh palace in Gwalior were an inspiration for much Mughal palace architecture and the source for the chhatris which can be seen on the Taj Mahal.


Design elements

Consistent repeated design elements are employed throughout the complex. These unify the complex with a single aesthetic vocabulary.


Major design features of the tomb are echoed throughout the complex -- both the tomb and the outlying buildings.


Finial: decorative crowning element of the Taj Mahal domes
Lotus decoration: depiction of lotus flower sculpted on tops of domes
Onion dome: massive outer dome of the tomb (also called an amrud or apple dome)
Drum: cylindrical base of the onion dome, raising it from the main building
Guldasta: decorative spire attached to the edge of supporting walls
Chattri: a domed and columned kiosk
Spandrel: upper panels of an archway
Calligraphy: stylized writing of verses from the Qu'ran framing main arches
Arch: also called pishtaq (Persian word for portal projecting from the facade of a building)
Dado: decorative sculpted panels lining lower walls
Most of the elements can be found on the gateway, mosque and jawab as well as the mausoleum.


The garden

The complex is set in and around a large charbagh (a formal Mughal garden divided into four parts). Measuring 320 m × 300 m, the garden has sunken parterres or flowerbeds, raised pathways, avenues of trees, fountains, water courses, and pools that reflect the Taj Mahal.

Each of the four quarters of the garden is divided into 16 flowerbeds by raised pathways. A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and the gateway, reflects the Taj Mahal.

The charbagh garden was introduced to India by the first Mughal emperor Babur, a design inspired by Persian gardens. The charbagh is meant to reflect the gardens of Paradise (from the Persian paridaeza -- a walled garden). In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, paradise as described as ideal garden, filled with abundance. Water plays a key role in these descriptions: In Paradise, these text say, four rivers source at a central spring or mountain, and separate the garden into north, west, south and east.

Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular in form, with a central tomb or pavillion in the center of the garden. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in siting the main element, the tomb, at the end rather than at the center of the garden. But the existence of the newly discovered Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna provides a different interpretation -- that the Yamuna itself was incorporated into the garden's design, and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise.

The layout of the garden, and its architectural features such as its fountains, brick and marble walkways, geometric brick-lined flowerbeds, and so on, are similar to Shalimar's, and suggest that the garden may have been designed by the same engineer, Ali Mardan.

Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including roses, daffodils, and fruit trees in abundance. As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden declined as well. When the British took over management of the Taj Mahal, they changed the landscaping to resemble more the formal lawns of London.


Outlying buildings




The Taj Mahal complex is bounded by a crenellated red sandstone wall on three sides. The river-facing side is unwalled. Outside the wall are several additional mausoleums, including those of many of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favorite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of smaller Mughal tombs of the era.

On the inner (garden) side, the wall is fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed kiosks (chattris), and small buildings which may have been viewing areas or watch towers (such as the so-called Music House, now used as a museum).

The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of red sandstone. The style is reminiscent of that of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilizes bas-relief and pietra dura (inlaid) decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the complex.


At the far end of the complex, two grand red sandstone buildings open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls.


The two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western building is a mosque; its opposite is the jawab or "answer", whose primary purpose was architectural balance (and which may have been used as a guesthouse during Mughal times). The distinctions are that the jawab lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca, and the floors of the jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid out the outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble.

The mosque's basic design is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Jama Masjid in Delhi: a long hall surmounted by three domes. Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas: a main sanctuary with slightly smaller sanctuaries to either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens on to an enormous vaulting dome.


The tomb


Base



The focus of the Taj Mahal is the white marble tomb. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin: a building with arched entrances, topped by a large dome. In India, and most especially at the Taj Mahal, this simple idea reached its zenith.

The tomb stands on a square plinth. The base structure is a large, multi-chambered structure. The main chamber houses the cenotaphs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz (the actual graves are a level below).

The base is essentially a cube with chamfered edges, roughly 55 meters on each side (see floor plan, right). On the long sides, a massive pishtaq, or vaulted archway frames an arch-shaped doorway, with a similar arch-shaped balcony above. These main arches extend above the roof the building by use of an integrated facade.

To either side of the main arch, additional pishtaqs are stacked above and below. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas.

The design is completely uniform and consistent on all sides of the building. Four minarets, one at each corner of the plinth, facing the chamfered corners, frame the tomb.

Dome

The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is its most spectacular feature. Its height is about the same size as the base building, about 35 m. Its height is accentuated because it sits on a cylindrical "drum" about 7 m high.

Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome (also called an amrud or apple dome). The top of the dome is decorated with a lotus design, which serves to accentuate its height. The dome is topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Islamic and Hindu decorative elements.

The dome shape is emphasized by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners. The chattri domes replicate the onion shape of main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb, and provide light to the interior. The chattris also are topped by gilded finials.

Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from the edges of the base walls, and provide visual emphasis of the dome height.

The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas.


Finial

The main dome is crowned by a gilded spire or finial. The finial provides a clear example of the integration of traditional Islamic and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a crescent moon, a typical Islamic motif, whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape -- reminiscent of the traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva.

Similarly, the spire is made up of a number of bulbous forms. The central form bears a striking resemblance to a Hindu sacred water vessel (kalash or kumbh).



Minarets



At the corners of the plinth stand minarets: four large towers each more than 40 m tall. The minarets again display the Taj Mahal's basic penchant for symmetrical, repeated design.

The towers are designed as working minarets, a traditional element of mosques, a place for a muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb.

The minaret chattris share the same finishing touches: a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. Each of the minarets was constructed slightly out of plumb to the outside of the plinth, so that in the event of collapse (a typical occurrence with many such tall constructions of the period) the material would tend to fall away from the tomb.


Decoration

Exterior decoration



Nearly every surface of the entire complex has been decorated. The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest to be found in Mughal architecture of any period.

Once again, decoration motifs are repeated throughout the complex. As the surface area changes -- a large pishtaq has more area than a smaller -- the decorations are refined proportionally.

The decorative elements come in basically three categories:

Calligraphy
Abstract geometric elements
Vegetative motifs
Islamic strictures forbade the use of anthropomorphic forms.

The decorative elements were created in three ways:

Paint or stucco applied to the wall surface
Stone inlay
Carvings


Calligraphy

Throughout the complex passages from the Qu'ran are used as decorative elements. The calligraphy is a florid and practically illegible thuluth script, created by the Mughal court's Persian calligrapher, Amanat Khan, who was resident at the Mughal court. He has signed several of the panels.

The calligraphy is made by jasper inlaid in white marble panels. Some of the work is extremely detailed and delicate (especially that found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb). Higher panels are written slightly larger to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below.

Recent scholarship suggests that Amanat Khan chose the passages as well. The texts refer to themes of judgment: of doom for nonbelievers, and the promise of Paradise for the faithful. The passages include: Surah 91 (The Sun), Surah 112 (The Purity of Faith), Surah 89 (Daybreak), Surah 93 (Morning Light), Surah 95 (The Fig), Surah 94 (The Solace), Surah 36 (Ya Sin), Surah 81 (The Folding Up), Surah 82 (The Cleaving Asunder), Surah 84 (The Rending Asunder), Surah 98 (The Evidence), Surah 67 (Dominion), Surah 48 (Victory), Surah 77 (Those Sent Forth) and Surah 39 (The Crowds).


Abstract geometric decoration

Abstract forms are used especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, and jawab, and to a lesser extent on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. (The incised painting technique is to scratch a channel in the stone, and to then lay a thick paint or stucco plaster across the surface. The paint is then scraped off the surface of the stone, leaving paint in the incision.)

On most joining areas, herringbone inlays define the space between adjoining elements. White inlays are used in the sandstone buildings, dark or black inlays on the white marble of the tomb and minarets. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted dark, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity.


Floors and walkways throughout use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns

Vegetative motifs

The lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasize the exquisite detailing of these carvings.

The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylized, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are yellow marble, jasper, and jade, leveled and polished to the surface of the walls.


Interior decoration

The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative elements. One may say without exaggeration that this chamber is a work of jewelry.

Here the inlay work is not pietra dura, but lapidary. The inlay material is not marble or jade, but precious and semiprecious gemstones. Every decorative element of the tomb's exterior has been redefined with jeweler's art.


The inner chamber

The inner chamber of the Taj Mahal contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan. It is a masterpiece of artistic craftsmanship, virtually without precedent or equal.

The inner chamber is an octagon. While the design allows for entry from each face, only the south (garden facing) door is used.

The interior walls are about 25 m high, topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif.

Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level. As is typical with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas; each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble.

In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by the chattris at the corners of the exterior dome.

Each of the chamber walls has been highly decorated with dado bas relief, intricate lapidary inlay, and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.

The jali

The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels. Each panel has been carved through with intricate piercework. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid with semiprecious stones in extremely delicate detail, forming twining vines, fruits and flowers.

The cenotaphs




Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves, so the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain chamber beneath the inner chamber of the Taj Mahal. They are buried on a north-south axis, with faces turned right (west) toward Mecca.

The Taj Mahal has been raised over their cenotaphs (from Greek keno taphas, empty tomb). The cenotaphs mirror precisely the placement of the two graves, and are exact duplicates of the grave stones in the basement below.

Mumtaz's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber. On a rectangular marble base about 1.5 by 2.5 m is a smaller marble casket. Both base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet.

Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side. It is the only asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of this casket is a sculpture of a small pen box. (The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funeary icons decorating men's and women's caskets respectively.)

Construction

Construction began with setting foundations for the tomb. An area of roughly three acres was excavated and filled with dirt to reduce seepage from the river. The entire site was leveled to a fixed height about 50 m above the riverbank. The Taj Mahal is 180 feet tall. The dome itself measures 60 feet in diameter and 80 feet high.

In the tomb area, wells were then dug down to the point that water was encountered. These wells were later filled with stone and rubble, forming the basis for the footings of the tomb. An additional well was built to same depth nearby to provide a visual method to track water level changes over time.

Instead of lashed bamboo, the typical scaffolding method, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the inner and outer surfaces of the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep bricks taken from the scaffold, and it was dismantled by peasants overnight.

A fifteen-kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials from Agra to the construction site. According to contemporary accounts teams of twenty or thirty oxen strained to pull the blocks on specially constructed wagons.

To raise the blocks into position required an elaborate post-and-beam pulley system. Teams of mules and oxen provided the lifting power.

The order of construction was

The plinth
The tomb
The four minarets
The mosque and jawab
The gateway

The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years. (Since the complex was built in stages, contemporary historical accounts list different "completion dates"; discrepancies between so-called completion dates are probably the result of differing opinions about the definition of "completion". For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex.)

Water infrastructure

Water for the Taj Mahal complex was provided through a complex infrastructure. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs -- an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism. The water flowed into a large storage tank, where, by thirteen additional purs, it was raised to large distribution tank above the Taj Mahal ground level.

From this distribution tank, water passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex. A 0.25 m earthenware pipe lies about 1.5 m below the surface, in line with the main walkway; this filled the main pools of the complex. Additional copper pipes supplied the fountains in the north-south canal. Subsidiary channels were dug to irrigate the entire garden.

The fountain pipes were not connected directly to the feed pipes. Instead, a copper pot was provided under each fountain pipe: water filled the pots allowing equal pressure in each fountain.

The purs no longer remain, but the other parts of the infrastructure have survived.


Craftsmen

The Taj Mahal was not designed by a single person. The project demanded talent from many quarters.

The names of many of the builders who participated in the construction of the Taj Mahal in different capacities have come down to us through various sources.

'Puru' from Benarus, Persia (Iran), has been mentioned as the supervising architect in Persian language texts (e.g. see ISBN 964-7483-39-2).

The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan from the Ottoman Empire[2], considered to be the premier designer of hemispheres and builder of domes of that age.

Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore, cast the solid gold finial that crowned the Turkish master's dome.

Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi, was chosen as the chief sculptor and mosaicist.

Amanat Khan from Persian Shiraz, Iran was the chief calligrapher (this fact is attested on the Taj Mahal gateway itself, where his name has been inscribed at the end of the inscription).

Muhammad Hanif was the supervisor of masons.

Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz, Iran handled finances and the management of daily production.

The creative team included sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only marble flowers — thirty seven men in all formed the creative nucleus. To this core was added a labour force of twenty thousand workers recruited from across northern India.

European commentators, particularly during the early period of the British Raj, suggested that some or all of the Taj Mahal was the work of European artisans. Most of these suggestions were purely speculative, but one dates back to 1640, when a Spanish Friar who visted Agra wrote that Geronimo Veroneo, an Italian adventurer in Shah Jahan's court, was primarily responsible for the design. There is no reliable scholarly evidence to back up this assertion, nor is Veroneo's name mentioned in any surviving documents relating to the construction. E.B. Havell, the principal British scholar of Indian art in the later Raj, dismissed this theory as unsupported by any evidence, and as inconsistent with the known methods employed by the designers.


Materials

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. Over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials during the construction. The white marble was brought from Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab and the jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, 28 types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.


Costs

The total cost of the Taj Mahal's construction was about 50 million rupees. At that time, 1 gram of gold was sold for about 1.4 rupees. Based on the October 2005 gold price that would translate to more than 500 million US$. (Comparisons based on the value of gold in two different economic eras are often misleading, however).


History

Soon after its completion, Shah Jahan was deposed and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort by his son Aurangzeb. Legend has it that he spent the remainder of his days gazing through the window, at the Taj Mahal. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the Taj Mahal, next to his wife, the only disruption of the otherwise perfect symmetry in the architecture. By the late 19th century, parts of the Taj Mahal had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the First war of Indian Independence, the Taj Mahal faced defacement by British soldiers, sepoys and government officials who chiseled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls.

At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a massive restoration project, completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber (modeled on one hanging in a Cairo mosque, when local craftsmen failed to provide adequate designs). It was during this time that the garden was remodeled with the more English-looking lawns that are visible today. By the 20th century the Taj Mahal was being better taken care of. In 1942, the government erected a behemoth scaffolding over it in anticipation of an air attack on it by the German Luftwaffe and later by the Japanese Air Force (see photo). During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were erected by the government to mislead would-be bomber pilots.

Its most recent threats came from environmental pollution on the banks of the Yamuna River, including acid rain occurring due to the Mathura oil refinery (something opposed by Supreme Court of India directives).

As of 1983, the Taj Mahal was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site that was. Today it is a major tourist destination.

Recently, the Taj Mahal was declared Sunni Wakf property, on the grounds that it is the grave of a woman whose husband, Emperor Shah Jahan was a Sunni. The Indian government has dismissed claims by the Muslim trust to administer the property, saying that their claims were baseless and the Taj Mahal is Indian national property.

The Taj Mahal is often described as one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Millions of tourists have visited the site -- more than three million in 2004, according to the BBC -- making it one of the most popular international attractions in India.

Legends and theories

Origins of the name

The name comes from Taj Persian, the language of the Mughal court, meaning crown, and Mahal means palace. Most sources suggest that Taj Mahal is a shorter variant of Mumtaz Mahal, the nickname of Arjumand Banu Begum, meaning First Lady of the Palace. As early as 1663, the French traveler François Bernier referred to the place as Tage Mehale.


The "Black Taj"

A longstanding popular tradition holds that an identical mausoleum complex was originally supposed to be built on the other side of the river, in black marble instead of white. The story suggests that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before the black version could be built. Ruins of dark marble found across the river are, the story suggests, the unfinished base of this "Black Taj."

Recent scholarship disputes this theory, and throws some interesting light on the design of the Taj Mahal. All other major Mughal tombs were sited in gardens that form a cross, with the tomb at the intersection of the vertical and horizontal pieces. The Taj Mahal gardens, by contrast, form a great 'T', with the tomb at the centre of the crosspiece. But the outline of the ruins on the other river bank would extend the design of the Taj Mahal gardens to form a cross of proportions typical of other Mughal tombs. Further, the marble in the ruins opposite the Taj Mahal, while dark from staining, were originally white. In addition, an octagonal pool in these ruins would have reflected the Taj Mahal. Scholars have called these ruins the Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden".


Shah Jahan's asymmetric tomb

Aurangzeb had Shah Jahan's tomb and cenotaph placed in the Taj Mahal rather than building him a separate mausoleum such as other emperors had. He thus destroyed the symmetry of the Taj Mahal design. A variation on the Black Taj legend suggests that Aurangzeb's decision was made from malice or parsimony. In Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb however, which was a major influence on the Taj Mahal design, Aurangzeb's grandparents were interred in a similar asymmetric fashion. Aurangazeb was a pious man, and Islam discourages all kinds of ostentation - least of all in death. That is why they do not use box-coffins but rather bury their dead in a white shroud. Islamic books describe burying in coffins or boxes as 'wasting wealth that can be used in good deeds like feeding the hungry or needy' Shah Jahan's building itself was thus a waste of money according to Aurangazeb's worldview. Thus he just buried his father next to his mother's tomb without much ado.



Mutilation of the craftsmen

A seemingly endless number of stories describe, often in horrific detail, deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan visited on various craftsmen associated with the tomb. No respected authorities find these legendary horrors credible. Perhaps the most common story prevailing is that Shah Jahan had the finest architects and sculptors at his disposal. After the completion of the work, Shah Jahan had their hands cut off and their eyes pulled out so that they would not build a monument more beautiful than Taj Mahal.


Stolen items

Legends abound concerning items originally attached to the Taj Mahal which were stolen. Some original items have been removed over time, but many are mere legends only. These legends include:

Gold leaf, supposed to have covered all or part of the dome.
A golden railing supposed to have circled the cenotaphs (suggested perhaps by a temporary enamel railing that was replaced after completion of the marble jali)
Diamonds supposedly inlaid in the cenotaphs
A blanket woven of pearls supposedly covering Mumtaz's cenotaph
Numerous items from the Taj Mahal have gone missing however; these include the following

An entrance door of carved jasper
Gold leaf that adorned the cast iron joints of the jali screen around the cenotaphs
Numerous rich carpets that covered the interior of the tomb
Enameled lamps from the interior chamber



British plan to demolish the Taj Mahal

There is an often-repeated story that Lord William Bentinck, governor of India in the 1830s, planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. In some versions of the tale, the demolition crew were ready to begin their work but were stopped only because Bentinck was unable to make the scheme financially viable. There is no contemporary evidence for this story, which may have emerged in the late nineteenth century when Bentinck was being criticised for his penny-pinching Utilitarianism, and when Lord Curzon was emphasising earlier neglect of the monument, and presenting himself as a saviour of Indian antiquities. Nevertheless, the story may have been based on a real proposal.


Was the Taj Mahal originally a temple or a palace?

P.N. Oak, President of The Institute for Rewriting Indian History, has repeatedly asserted that the Taj Mahal was a Hindu temple of the god Shiva, usurped and remodeled by Shah Jahan. The temple's name, he says, was originally "Tejo Mahalaya"; this was corrupted over time to "Taj Mahal".

Oak also claims that the tombs of Humayun, Akbar and Itmiad-u-Dallah — as well as the Vatican in Rome[3], the Kaaba in Mecca, Stonehenge, and "all historic buildings" in India — were also Hindu temples or palaces.

The Taj is only a typical illustration of how all historic buildings and townships from Kashmir to Cape Comorin though of Hindu origin have been ascribed to this or that Muslim ruler or courtier.[4]

He further says that if Taj Mahal was not a Shiva temple, that it might then have been the palace of a Rajput king. In any case (he says), the Taj Mahal was Hindu in origin, stolen by Shah Jahan and adapted as a tomb — although Oak also claims that Mumtaz is not buried there.

Oak further states that the numerous eyewitness accounts of Taj Mahal construction, and Shah Jahan's construction orders and voluminous financial records, are elaborate frauds meant to hide its Hindu origin.

His many provocative assertions have gained a lot of popular interest and made Oak a well-known media figure.

He has sued to break open the cenotaphs, and to tear down brick walls in the lower plinth: In these "fake tombs" and "sealed apartments", Oak says Shivalingams or other temple items were hidden by Shah Jahan.[4]

According to Oak, the Indian government's refusal to allow him unfettered access amounts to a conspiracy against Hinduism.

Oak's assertions are not accepted by legitimate scholars. But these stories are widely believed and publicized by some contemporary Hindutva (Hindu nationalist) activists.

In 2000 India's Supreme Court dismissed Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal, and reprimanded him for bringing the action.[5] In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who claims that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmar Dev in 1196

Gateway to the Taj Mahal

The Gateway to the Taj Mahal is a unique piece of architecture in itself and separates the gardens from the forecourt. Rising approximately 100 feet [30 meters] and with a width of 150 feet [46 meters], this red sandstone building is of three stories, and like the tomb, is adorned with calligraphy the noblest craft of the day.

The gateway is an atmospheric transition point between the bustling world outside and the tranquil ambiance within the grounds of the Taj Mahal. It both protects the Taj from predators, yet invites visitors to enter the garden of Paradise. The imposing brass door is not the original which was studded with silver rupees, and was stolen by rebels in 1764.


The first of many Arabic inscriptions in a calligraphic scheme guided specifically by Qur'anic quotations appears around the south door of the gateway. The calligrapher, Amanat Khan has used the tromp l'oeil effect. This involves the gradual enlarging of the letters and their spacing as they snake around the form of the arch. The result is seemingly consistent dimensions as you read the holy lettering from the ground.

Crowning the gateway are twenty two small ornamental chhatris and these are placed in two lines of eleven above the main portal. In each of the four corners are larger kiosks, all of which echo the overall design of the Taj Mahal complex.

The Indian Saints, Babas or Saddhus

Call them Indian Holy men, hindu monks, saints, babas or saddhus, They are the center of Indian spirituality

Spiritual adventurers, ascetic warriors, devout mystics, occult rebels or philosophic monks,the sadhus are revered by Hindus as representatives of the gods,
sometimes even worshipped as gods themselves.

A Sadhu (Saa-dhu) - is a Hindu ascetic or a monk The Sadhu tradition has a long history. It consists of renouncing worldly ties in pursuit of higher values of life. Ideally a Sadhu lives in the society but is detached from its pleasures and pains.

Sadhus typically survive on bhiksha (alms) provided by families, and on natural resources, and they spend most of their time in meditation. A large number of Sadhus assemble for holy festivals such as the Kumbha-Mela.


In Hinduism, sadhu is a common term for an ascetic or practitioner of yoga (yogi) who has given up pursuit of the first three Hindu goals of life: kama (pleasure), artha (wealth and power) and even dharma (duty). The sadhu is solely dedicated to achieving moksha (liberation) through meditation and contemplation of God. Although the term Sadhu has its roots in Hinduism it is also used for followers of other religions, if they live a Sadhu life. The most famous non-Hindu Sadhu was probably the Buddha and there are Sadhus in Sikhism as well.


Sadhus in Indian society

Sadhus are often sanyasi, or renunciates, who have left behind all material and sexual attachments and live in caves, forests and temples all over India. The word comes from the Sanskrit "to practice", referring to the practice of meditation. See sadhana.

A sadhu is usually referred to as baba by common people. The word 'baba' means father, or uncle, in most Indian languages. Sometimes the respectful suffix 'ji' may also be added after baba, to give greater respect to the renunciant.

There are 4 or 5 million sadhus in India today and they are still widely respected, revered and even feared, especially for their curses. It is also thought that the austere practices of the sadhus helps to burn off their karma and that of the community at large. Thus seen as benefitting society, many people help support sadhus with donations. However, reverence of sadhus is by no means universal in India. Historically and contemporarily, sadhus have often been seen with a certain degree of suspicion, particularly amongst the urban populations of India. Today, especially in popular pilgrimage cities, posing as a 'sadhu' can be a means of acquiring income for beggars who could hardly be considered 'devout.'


Sadhu sects

Sadhus are not unified in their practices. Some live in the mountains alone for years at a time, eating only a few bananas. Others walk around with one hand in the air for decades until the fingers withdraw into a stump. Still others partake in the religious consumption of charas, similar to marijuana and contemplate the cosmic nature and presence of God in the smoke patterns.

There are naked Naga (Digambar, or "sky-clad") sadhus with thick dreadlocks, or Jata, who carry swords. Aghora sadhus may keep company with ghosts, or live in cemeteries as part of their holy path (See: Aghori). Indian culture tends to emphasize an infinite number of paths to God, such that sadhus, and the varieties that sadhus come in, have their place.

According to the Ripley's Believe It or Not TV show, there are a few sadhus among the Aghora sect who ritually eat human flesh. They claim to be performing the duties of Shiva (Lord of death) by consuming human corpses thrown into Ganga river. Despite their ritual indulgence in cannibalism, they lead an otherwise austere life.

However, for every sadhu who is doing some form of extreme practice, there is another one who is devoting all of their time and attention to praying, chanting or meditating.

Becoming a sadhu

Becoming a sadhu is a path followed by few. It is supposed to be the fourth phase of a Hindu’s life, after studies, being a father and a pilgrim, but for most it’s not a practical option. There are some who fake holy status to gain respect but they are often discovered by true sadhus.

Becoming a sadhu is a difficult lifestyle. Sadhus are considered to be dead unto themselves, and they may be required ritually to attend their own funeral before following a guru for many years, serving him by doing menial tasks until acquiring the necessary experience to leave his leadership.

The sadhu life

The ruggedness of the sadhu life deters many from following the sadhu path. Such practices as the obligatory early morning bath in the cold mountains require a detachment from common luxuries. After the bath, sadhus gather around the dhuni, or holy fireplace, and begin with their prayers and meditation for the day.

Some sadhus practice black magic or herbalism and dispense cures to the local community, remove evil eyes or bless a marriage. They are a walking reminder to the average Hindu of Divinity. They're generally allowed free passage on the trains and are a closely-knit organization. Some were even military in the old days, and even now, the Naga babas carry their swords with them.

Many sadhus have entered the Guinness World Records for feats of marathon endurance including standing for 17 years, staying in the same place for more than two decades, crawling 1400 km and many similar efforts, in their quest to attain spirituality.

Kumbh Mela, a mass gathering of sadhus from all parts of India, takes place every four years at various points along the holy River Ganges. Sadhus of all sects join in this reunion.

Anthurium

Anthurium Schott 1829, is a large neotropical genus of about 600- 800 (possibly 1,000) species, belonging to the arum family (Araceae). It is the largest and probably the most complex genus of this family. Many species are undoubtedly not described yet and new ones are being found every year.

They grow in the most diverse habitats, mostly in wet tropical mountain forest of Central America and South America, but some in semi-arid environments. Most species occur in Panama, Colombia and Ecuador.

Anthurium grows in the many forms, mostly evergreen, bushy or climbing epiphytes with relatively few roots. They occur also as terrestrials or lithophytes. Some are only found in association with arboreal ant colonies or growing on rocks in midstream (such as A. amnicola).

The stems are short to elongate with a length between 15 and 30 cm. The simple leaves come in many shapes. Most leaves are to be found at the end of the stem. They can be spatulate, rounded, or obtuse at the apex. They may be erect or spreading in a rosette, with a length up to 40 cm. The upper surface is matted or semiglossy. The leaves are petiolate. In drier environments, the leaves can take a bird's-nest-shape rosette that enables the plant to collect water. Terrestrials or epiphytes usually have cordate leaves. Some grow as vines with rosettes of lanceolate leaves. Some species have many-lobed leaves.

The flowers are small (about 3 mm) and develop crowded in a spike with a fleshy axis and called a spadix, a characteristic of the arums. This spadix can take on many forms (club-shaped, tapered, spiraled, and globe-shaped) and colors (white, green, purple, red, pink, or a combination).

Usually just below the flower spike lies a colorful, solitary spathe: a showy modified bract that can be somewhat leathery in texture. The spathe consists of a tightly packed column of spirally arranged, tiny flowers. The spathe can vary in color from pale green to white, rose, orange or shiny red (such as A. andrenaum). The color changes between the bud stage and the anthesis, (the time the flower expands). Thus the color might change from pale green to reddish purple to reddish brown.

The flowers are hermaphrodite, containing male and female flowers. The fruits are usually berries with one to multiple seeds on a pendent infructescence.

The flowers of Anthurium give off a variety of fragrances, each attracting a variety of specific pollinators.

Several species are popular in the florist trade as pot plants or cut flowers and for interior decoration. They include forms such as A. crystallinum f peltifolium with its large, velvety, darkgreen leaves and silvery white venation. Most hybrids are based on A. andreanum or A. scherzerianum because of their colorful spathes.

Love is Dangers Game

Saw this pasted on the front window of a Toyota Qualis. Just could not resist myself.

This looks like the handiwork of a Haryanvi Jat.

Jat is a clan of people who are understood to be very strong, short tempered, violent and unreasonable.

There are many jokes associated with Jats.

One such joke is:

Akhbaar wala ek haryanavi filmon ke hero ka interview leve tha. Uste poochan lagya,

"Jungle mein thaare aage sher aaje to tum ke karoge?"
Hero bolya,

"Arre manne ke karna se, pher to jo bhi karega woh to susra sher he karega!"


English Translation:
A journalaist asks a haryanvi Jat actor "If a lion comes in front of you in a jungle, what would you do?"

The Jat actor replies "What do I have to do? Whatever has to be done, would be done by the Lion!!"



The Jats (Hindi: जाट, Punjabi: ਜੱਟ, Urdu: جاٹ) of Northern India and Pakistan, are descendants of war-like horse-mounted tribes. In India, they inhabit the states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, and are also scattered throughout Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. In Pakistan, they are found in the provinces of Punjab and Sindh. The Jats also have a strong military tradition, and many Jats were recruited into the British Indian Army during World War I. Large number of Jats serve in the Indian Army, including the Jat Regiment, Rajputana Rifles, Sikh Regiment and the Grenadiers, among others.

The Jat regions in India are among the most prosperous on a per-capita basis (Haryana, Punjab, and Gujarat are among the wealthiest of Indian provinces).

Aum

This picture submitted in PhotoFriday Challenge: Masterpiece

Aum (also Om or Ohm, ॐ) is the most sacred syllable in Hinduism, symbolizing the infinite Brahman and the entire Universe. The syllable is sometimes referred to as the "Udgitha" or "pranava mantra" (primordial mantra); not only because it is considered to be the primal sound, but also because most mantras begin with it. It first came to light in the Vedic Tradition. As a seed syllable (bija), it is also considered holy in Esoteric Buddhism. In Devanagari it is written ॐ (Unicode U+0950) and in Tibetan script ༀ (Unicode U+0F00).

In the Chandogya Upanishad it is said:

The essence of all beings is the earth.
The essence of the earth is water.
The essence of water is the plant.
The essence of the plant is man.
The essence of man is speech.
The essence of speech is the Rigveda.
The essence of Rigveda is the Samveda.
The essence of Samveda is OM.

Thus OM is the best of all essences, deserving the highest place. Visually, OM is represented by a stylized pictograph.

Thus OM is the best of all essences, deserving the highest place. Visually, OM is represented by a stylized pictograph.

A deeper insight into this mystic symbol reveals that it is composed of three syllables combined into one, not like a physical mixture but more like a chemical combination. Indeed in Sanskrit the vowel 'o' is constitutionally a diphthong compound of a + u; hence OM is representatively written as AUM.

Fittingly, the symbol of AUM consists of three curves (curves 1, 2, and 3), one semicircle (curve 4), and a dot.

The large lower curve 1 symbolizes the waking state (jagrat), in this state the consciousness is turned outwards through the gates of the senses. The larger size signifies that this is the most common ('majority') state of the human consciousness.

The upper curve 2 denotes the state of deep sleep (sushupti) or the unconscious state. This is a state where the sleeper desires nothing nor beholds any dream.

The middle curve 3 (which lies between deep sleep and the waking state) signifies the dream state (swapna). In this state the consciousness of the individual is turned inwards, and the dreaming self beholds an enthralling view of the world behind the lids of the eyes.

These are the three states of an individual's consciousness, and since Indian mystic thought believes the entire manifested reality to spring from this consciousness, these three curves therefore represent the entire physical phenomenon.


The dot signifies the fourth state of consciousness, known in Sanskrit as turiya. In this state the consciousness looks neither outwards nor inwards, nor the two together. It signifies the coming to rest of all differentiated, relative existence This utterly quiet, peaceful and blissful state is the ultimate aim of all spiritual activity. This Absolute (non-relative) state illuminates the other three states.


Finally, the semi circle symbolizes maya and separates the dot from the other three curves. Thus it is the illusion of maya that prevents us from the realization of this highest state of bliss. The semi circle is open at the top, and does not touch the dot. This means that this highest state is not affected by maya. Maya only affects the manifested phenomenon. This effect is that of preventing the seeker from reaching his ultimate goal, the realization of the One, all-pervading, unmanifest, Absolute principle. In this manner, the form of OM represents both the unmanifest and the manifest, the noumenon and the phenomenon.

As a sacred sound also, the pronunciation of the three-syllabled AUM is open to a rich logical analysis.

The first alphabet A is regarded as the primal sound, independent of cultural contexts. It is produced at the back of the open mouth, and is therefore said to include, and to be included in, every other sound produced by the human vocal organs. Indeed A is the first letter of the Sanskrit alphabet.

The open mouth of A moves toward the closure of M. Between is U, formed of the openness of A but shaped by the closing lips. Here it must be recalled that as interpreted in relation to the three curves, the three syllables making up AUM are susceptible to the same metaphorical decipherment. The dream state (symbolized by U), lies between the waking state (A) and the state of deep sleep (M). Indeed a dream is but the compound of the consciousness of waking life shaped by the unconsciousness of sleep.

AUM thus also encompasses within itself the complete alphabet, since its utterance proceeds from the back of the mouth (A), travelling in between (U), and finally reaching the lips (M). Now all alphabets can be classified under various heads depending upon the area of the mouth from which they are uttered. The two ends between which the complete alphabet oscillates are the back of the mouth to the lips; both embraced in the simple act of uttering of AUM.

The last part of the sound AUM (the M) known as ma or makar, when pronounced makes the lips close. This is like locking the door to the outside world and instead reaching deep inside our own selves, in search for the Ultimate truth.

But over and above the threefold nature of OM as a sacred sound is the invisible fourth dimension which cannot be distinguished by our sense organs restricted as they are to material observations. This fourth state is the unutterable, soundless silence that follows the uttering of OM. A quieting down of all the differentiated manifestations, i.e. a peaceful-blissful and non-dual state. Indeed this is the state symbolized by the dot in the traditional iconography of AUM.

The threefold symbolism of OM is comprehensible to the most 'ordinary' of us humans, realizable both on the intuitive and objective level. This is responsible for its widespread popularity and acceptance. That this symbolism extends over the entire spectrum of the manifested universe makes it a veritable fount of spirituality. Some of these symbolic equivalents are:

Colors: Red, White, and Black.
Seasons: Spring, Summer, and Winter.
Periods: Morning, Midday, and Evening.
States: Waking-consciousness (jagriti), Dream (svapna), and deep-sleep (sushupti).
Spheres: Earthly, Heavenly, and Intermediary.
Poetic Meters: Gayatri (24 syllables), Trishtubh (44 syllables), and Jagati (48 syllables).
Veda: Rigveda (knowledge of the meters), Yajurveda (knowledge of contents), Samaveda (knowledge of extension).
Elemental Deity: Fire (Agni), Sun (Aditya), Wind (Vayu).
Manifestation of Speech: Voice (vak), Mind (manas), Breath (prana).
Priestly Function: Making offering, Performing ritual, and Singing.
Tendencies: Revolving, Cohesive, and Disintegrating.
Quality: Energy (rajas), Purity (sattva), and Ignorance (tamas).
Ritual fire: Of the home, of the Ancestors, and of Invocation.
Goddess: Amba, Ambika, and Ambalika.
Gods: Of the elements (Vasus), of the sky (Adityas), of the sphere-of-space (Rudras).
Deity: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva.
Action: Creation, Preservation, and Destruction.
Power: of Action (kriya), of Knowledge (jnana), and of Will (iccha).
Man: Body, Soul, and Spirit.
Time: Past, Present, and Future.
Stages of Existence: Birth, Life, and Death.
Phases of the Moon: Waxing, Full, and Waning.
Godhead: Father, Mother, and Son.
Alchemy: Sulphur, Quicksilver, and Salt.
Buddhism: the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha (three jewels of Buddhism).
Qabalism: Male, Female, and the Uniting intelligence.
Japanese Thought: Mirror, Sword, and Jewel.
Divine Attributes: Truth, Courage, and Compassion.

According to Indian spiritual sciences, God first created sound, and from these sound frequencies came the phenomenal world. Our total existence is constituted of these primal sounds, which give rise to mantras when organized by a desire to communicate, manifest, invoke or materialize. Matter itself is said to have proceeded from sound and OM is said to be the most sacred of all sounds. It is the syllable which preceded the universe and from which the gods were created. It is the "root" syllable (mula mantra), the cosmic vibration that holds together the atoms of the world and heavens. Indeed the Upanishads say that AUM is god in the form of sound. Thus OM is the first part of the most important mantras in both Buddhism and Hinduism, for e.g. Om Namoh Shivai and Om Mani Padme Hum.

In a further development of the mystic conception of AUM, the Mandukya Upanishad states:

AUM is a bow,
The arrow is the self,
And Brahman (Absolute reality) is said to be the Mark.

Another ancient text equates AUM with an arrow, laid upon the bow of the human body (the breath), which after penetrating the darkness of ignorance finds its mark, namely the lighted domain of True Knowledge. Just as a spider climbs up its thread and gains freedom, so the yogis climb towards liberation by the syllable OM.

The omnific and omniparous quality of OM makes it omnipresential, and in-omissible from any spiritual practice. As an omnipotent symbol, the yogi who penetrates its mystery is indeed truly omnicompetent and omnipercipient, and as an omniscient source, it is a virtual omnibus of sacred and mystical inspirations


The Significance of the Symbol Om

The symbol Om (also called Pranava), is the most sacred symbol in Hinduism. Volumes have been written in Sanskrit illustrating the significance of this mystic symbol. Although this symbol is mentioned in all the Upanishads and in all Hindu scriptures, it is especially elaborated upon in the Taittiriya, Chandogya and Mundaka Upanishads.

The goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans desire when they live a life of continence, I will tell you briefly it is Om. The syllable Om is indeed Brahman. This syllable Om is the highest. Whosoever knows this symbol obtains all that he desires. This is the best support; this is the highest support. Whosoever knows this support is adored in the world of Brahman.
-Katha Upanishad I, ii, 15-17
The symbol of Om contains of three curves, one semicircle and a dot. The large lower curve symbolizes the waking state; the upper curve denotes deep sleep (or the unconscious) state, and the lower curve (which lies between deep sleep and the waking state) signifies the dream state. These three states of an individual’s consciousness, and therefore the entire physical phenomenon, are represented by the three curves. The dot signifies the Absolute (fourth or Turiya state of consciousness), which illuminates the other three states. The semicircle symbolizes maya and separates the dot from the other three curves. The semicircle is open on the top, which means that the absolute is infinite and is not affected by maya. Maya only affects the manifested phenomenon. In this way the form of Om symbolizes the infinite Brahman and the entire Universe and the world. Aum is made out of three god shiva, ganesh and gayatri.

Uttering the monosyllable Om, the eternal world of Brahman, One who departs leaving the body (at death), he attains the superior goal.
-Bhagavad Gita, 8.13
When OM is a part of a place name (for example Omkareshwar), or is used as a man's name, it is spelled phonetically using ordinary letters of whatever Indian alphabet is used in the area.

Aum in Hindu tradition

Origin

Found first in the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism, Aum has been seen as the first manifestation of the unmanifest Brahman (the single Divine Ground of Hinduism) that resulted in the phenomenal universe. Essentially, all the cosmos stems from the vibration of the sound 'Aum' in Hindu cosmology. Indeed, so sacred is it that it is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu mantras and incantations. It is undoubtedly the most representative symbol of Hinduism.

Although the OM symbol's left part, ऊ (Unicode U+090A), which looks like a figure 3, looks like the without-a-consonant form of the ū vowel in the Devanagari script, specifically, when used as a syllable with no attached initial consonant, it is actually based on a Brahmi version of ओ. The nasal sound is indicated by a chandrabindu (U+0901).

Philosophy of AUM

According to Hindu philosophy this syllable is combined of three components: the letter A (alpha), which represents creation, when all existence issued forth from Brahma's golden necleus; the letter U, which refers to Vishnu the god of the middle who preserves this world by balancing Brahma on a lotus above himself. The letter U with the A, produces the sound of the long O (omega). The M produces the prolonged resonance of the nasal cavity with the mouth closed: it is the final part of the cycle of existence, when Vishnu falls asleep and Brahma has to breathe in so that all existing things have to disintegrate and are reduces to their essence to him. This is the M of Mahesha, also known as the great Lord Shiva, whose long period of yoga begins so that the sensual world ceases to exists.

Gods and Goddesses are sometimes referred to as Aumkar, which means Form of Aum, thus implying that who are limitless, the vibrational whole of the cosmos. Ek Onkar, meaning 'one god' is a central tenet of Sikh religious philosophy. In Hindu metaphysics, it is proposed that the manifested cosmos (from Brahman) has name and form (nama-rupa), and that the closest approximation to the name and form of the universe is Aum, since all existence is fundamentally composed of vibration. (This concept of describing reality as vibrations, or rhythmic waves, can also be found in quantum physics and super string theory, which describe the universe in terms of vibrating fields or strings.)

In advaita philosophy it is frequently used to represent three subsumed into one, a common theme in Hinduism. It implies that our current existence is mithya, or 'skewed reality,' that in order to know the full truth we must comprehend beyond the body and intellect and intuit the true nature of infinity, of a Divine Ground that is imminent but also transcends all duality, being and non-being, that cannot be described in words. Within this metaphysical symbolism, the three are represented by the lower curve, upper curve and tail of the ॐ subsumed into the ultimate One, represented by the little crescent moon-shape and dot, known as chandrabindu. Essentially, upon moksha, mukti, samadhi, nirvana, liberation, etc. one is able not only to see or know existence for what it is, but to become it. In attaining truth one simply realizes fundamental unity; it is not the joining together of a prior manifold splitting. When one gains true knowledge, there is no split between knower and known: one becomes knowledge/consciousness itself. In essence, Aum is the signifier of the ultimate truth that all is one.


Dvaita (Vaishnava) philosophies teach that 'Aum' is an impersonal sound representation of Vishnu/Krishna while Hari Nama is the personal sound representation. A represents Krishna, U Srimati Radharani and M jivas. According to Sridhara Svami the pranava has five parts: A, U, M, the nasal bindu and the reverberation (nada). Liberated souls meditate on the Lord at the end of that reverberation. For both Hindus and Buddhists this syllable is sacred and so laden with spiritual energy that it may only be pronounced with complete concentration.

Examples of Three into One:

Creation (Brahma)- Preservation (Vishnu)- Destruction (Shiva) into Brahman
Waking- Dreaming- Dreamless Sleep into Turiya (transcendental fourth state of consciousness)
Rajas (activity, heat, fire) - Tamas (dullness, ignorance, darkness) - Sattva (purity, light, serenity/shanti) into Brahman
Body, Speech and Mind into Oneness

The Chandogya Upanishad (1.1.1-10) states, "The udgitha is the best of all essences, the highest, deserving the highest place, the eighth."

"Aum" can be seen as Sri Ganesh, whose figure is often represented in the shape of Aum. He is thus known as Aumkar (Shape of Aum). Sri Nataraja, or the Hindu god 'Shiva' dancing his dance of destruction, is seen in that popular representation mirroring the image of Aum. It is said to be the most perfect 'approximation' of the cosmic existence within time and space, and therefore the sound closest to Truth.

"The First Word Om (Aum) It is also called Pranav because its sound emanates from the Prana (vital vibration), which feels the Universe. The scripture says "Aum Iti Ek Akşara Brahman" (Aum that one syllable is Brahman).

Aum according to Vedic Scholars

Vedic scholars do not believe in several gods. According to them God is one but his names are plenty. God is omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient and formless. Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma etc are names of the God. The meanings of ved mantras are fully understood after studying Rishi Panini's Ashtadhyi and Mahabhashya. So according to vedic scholars: Aum has three Hindi words. Aa, Uu AND Ma. Aa is meant for Aakaar from which three names of God are built, Viraat, Agni, and Vishwadi. From Uu = uukar from which Hiranyagarbha, Vaayu and Tejas names occur and Ma = makaar from which Ishwar, Aditya and Praajyan aadi, holy names of God occur. Rigveda mantra 1/164/46 says God is one but His names are several. But here AUM the holy name of God is only being explained.

VIRAAT= Viraat word is made from dhatu 'Rajrideeptau' i.e., manifest. Therefore Viraat means He who manifests the universe. As God manifests the universe, thus Viraat is the name of God. Rigveda mandal 10, sukta 129 states that like potter makes pot from clay, similarly God creates universe from non-alive matter prakriti. Prakriti is unseen matter. From unseen matter, the whole universe is created in the visible form. Science also says that matter is never destroyed but changes its form. Suppose a paper is burnt, paper changes its form into ashes. Then ashes are crushed and thrown in air. At this moment, the paper changed into ashes becomes invisible but was never destroyed. Similarly the whole universe at the time of final destruction is turned into prakriti i.e., into unseen form.

AGNI = From dhatu, " ANCHU GATI POOJANAYOHO" the word "AGNI is made. Its meaning is --- He who is a form of wisdom. "SARVAJAYEN" i.e., omniscient. I.e., knows even every atom of universe and even beyond universe too. He who is to be known, to be gained and worshippable. So agni is the name of God.

VISHWA = Vishwa word is made from dhatu, "VISHPRAVESHANE". Its meaning is in whom the universe is entering or He is entering the universe. So being omnipresent, Vishwa is the name of God.

HIRANGARBHA = i.e., " JYOTIRVAYIHIRANYAM". Its meaning is, who is the base of all sun, etc., luminous lokas or He who is the living place of all luminous lokas.

VAAYU = from dhatu, "VA GATIGANDHANYOHO", vaayu word is made. Its meaning is He who holds, gives life and destroys and the mightiest amongst all. So the name of God is Vaayu.

TEJ = from dhatu, "TIJA NISHANE", the word Tej is made who is self made and self-enlighted and gives light to sun, moon, stars etc. God does not take light from anywhere else but gives light to sun, moon, stars, etc. so the unbroken, unobstructed/unproduced and eternal shape of light is Almighty God and not sun, moon etc. So the name of God is Tej.

ISHWAR = from dhatu, "ISH ASHWERIYE", the word Ishwar is made. Its meaning is whose knowledge is thoughtful and true and has unlimited wealth, fortune and glory etc. Therefore the name of God is Ishwar. Here it is not out of place to mention that soul (man/woman) has limited qualities and are dependent whereas God is independent and has unlimited qualities that is why He is God.

ADITYA = from dhatu, "DO AVAKHANDANE", Aditya word is made. Its meaning is the one who cannot be broken into pieces and thus cannot be destroyed. So God's name is Aditya.

PRAJAYEN (PRAGYA) = from dhatu, "JYEN AVABODHANE", Prajayen word is made whose wisdom is totally without any misunderstanding and thus he who knows every Manner and behavior of whole universe without misunderstanding. So God's name is Prajayen. So here also it not out of place to mention that illusion can never attack on God and God is totally free from illusion.

Thus OM is that name of God which contains many other names as well. Therefore, Om is called the "Supreme name of God". Patanjal Yog sutra 1/27 says Om is the supreme name of god and it can't have any meaning other than God. Also Yog sutra 1/28 says Remembering Om and its above said meaning will make the devotee happy, focused and his enlightened. Yajurveda mantra 40/17 says Om is the name of Almighty ever existing God. Regarding this manusmriti shlokas 11 /222,225,265 also refer.

Om in Jain tradition
In Jainism, Om is regarded to be a condensed form of reference to the five parameshthis. The Dravyasamgrah quotes an ancient Prakrit line:

ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत "अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां",
"om" one akshara, is made from the initials of the five parameshthis. It has been said: "Arihanta, Ashiri (i.e. siddha), Acharya, Upadhyaya, Munis(sadhus)"

Thus ओं नमः (oṃ namaḥ) is a short form of the Namokara mantra.



Om in Buddhist tradition

With Buddhism's evolution and breaking away from Vedic/Hindu tradition, Aum and other symbology/cosmology/philosophies are shared with the Hindu tradition. This character often appeared as "唵" in Buddhist scripts in East Asia.

In Buddhism this syllable is almost never transliterated as Aum, but instead as Om.

This syllable is also incorporated in the mantra "Om Mani Padme Hum".

Om in Sikh tradition

Ek Onkar (also ੴ, ਇਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ, Ik Onkar) means one God and is a central symbol of the unity of God in Sikhism, and is commonly found on Gurdwaras. Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion, used the word Onkar to state the concept of a monotheistic God rather than the Tri-Deity concept that Om had become mired in at the time of his presence in the world, namely that Om had come to represent the trinity of Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (The Sustainer) and Shiva (the Destroyer). Instead, Guru Nanak, by placing the number 1 in front of Onkar, propagated the basic principle of Sikhism - that the creative, sustaining and destructive energies are all embodied in the One Almighty, thereby directly opposing the Trinity interpretation that had become commonplace at the time.

This is further clarified by Guru Nanak in his composition:

oua(n)kaar brehamaa outhapath

From Ongkaar, the One Universal Creator God, Brahma was created. (Guru Nanak, Guru Granth Sahib, 929).

...defining that Onkar is that which created Brahma and therefore preceded Brahma.

Ek means "one" (Sanskrit eka).
Onkar came from Sanskrit Omkāra, which means "he or it which makes Om", and thus could mean:-
Handwriter's and printer's term for the Om symbol.
Creator, originally referring to the Hindu god Brahma saying "Om" and thereby creating the world (though obviously in conflict with the verse from Guru Nanak quoted above).
Ek Onkar is the start of the Sikh Mool Mantra - the root basis of all Sikh sacred thought, and the first phrase of the Sikh Guru embodied in scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib.

Pronunciation of AUM

"A - emerges from the throat, originating in the region of the navel U - rolls over the tongue M - ends on the lips A - waking, U - dreaming, M - sleeping It is the sum and substance of all the words that can emanate from the human throat. It is the primordial fundamental sound symbolic of the Universal Absolute." [1].

In fact, when correctly pronounced, or rather, rendered, the "A" can be felt as a vibration that manifests itself near the navel or abdomen; the "U" can be felt vibrating the chest, and the "M" vibrates the cranium or the head. The abdominal vibration symbolises Creation; It is interesting that the "creative" or reproductive organs are also located in the lower abdomen. The vibration of the chest represents Preservation, which is also where the lungs are situated (the lungs sustain or preserve the body through breath). The vibration of the head is associated with Destruction or sacrifice, since all that gives up or destroys is first destroyed mentally. Hence, the entire cycle of the universe and all it contains is said to be symbolised in AUM.

Today, in all Hindu art and all over India and Nepal, 'Aum' can be seen virtually everywhere, a standard sign for Hinduism and a vast but economical storehouse for the deep philosophy and mythology inherent in the world's oldest religion.

Notes the Chandogya Upanishad, "That syllable, is a syllable of permission; for, whenever we permit anything, we say Aum." However, this is seen by others as a myopic perspective because the same Hindu scriptures, the Upanishads, that aver this function also attribute to it the divine property of the source of the universe. Aum is seen as the source of existence as we know it within the causal dimensions of time and space, and thus affirmatory meanings in languages are a natural progression. Aum is not only affirmation, but negation, and transcends both.

The AUM sound is sometimes called "the 3-syllable Veda". The third syllable arises because in Devanagari and similar alphabets, a consonant at the end of a word is sometimes written as a separate consonant letter with the virama "no vowel" sign, and this combination is treated as a syllable when talking about Devanagari writing rather than about phonetics.

An individual's "Aum" is the sound that can be held steady the longest per breath for the longest consecutive sequence of breaths. It is called "aum" in every culture that is aware of it because it sounds like that in all humans. The lower pitches are more suited because they require less muscular contraction of the abdomen, leading to lower rates of oxygen consumption, allowing for longer time between breaths. The Aum is the exact sound that is easiest for the individual to produce.

Once the minimization of oxygen consumption occurs (by minimization of muscular exertion), the outflow of air will be steady and quite sensitive to any forces that alter the amount of pressure in the chest cavity. One of the most notable consequences of this is that the rhythmic contractions of the heart become audible within the Aum.

Thus, by the use of Aum:

one can easily hear their own heart.
a person can modify the pace of their heart.
a group of people can synchronize their heartbeats.


Omkara

The Sanskrit word omkāra (from which came Punjabi onkār, etc), literally "OM-maker", has two families of meanings:-

Brahma (god) in his role as creator, and thus a word for "creator".
Writers' term for the OM sign.


Some quotations from Hindu scriptures regarding AUM

In the Rig-veda we find the following information; "One who chants om, which is the closest form of Brahman, approaches Brahman. This liberates one from the fear of the material world, therefore it is known as tarak brahman."

"O Vishnu your self-manifest name, om, is the eternal form of cognizance. Even if my knowledge about the glories of reciting this name is incomplete, still, by the practice of reciting this name I will achieve that perfect knowledge. "He who has unmanifested potencies and is fully independent, manifests the vibration omkara, which indicates Himself. Brahman, Paramatma, and Bhagavan are the three forms He manifests."

"Aum takes the form of Gayatri, then Veda and Vedanta sutra; then it takes the shape of Srimad Bhagavatam and the lila, the divine pastimes, of the Lord."

Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita 7.8 and 9.17, "I am Om", and that one must chant Om thinking of Him in order to attain Him personally ('mam anusmaran', 8.13).

"From the beginning of creation, the three words om tat sat were used to indicate the Supreme Absolute Truth. These three symbolic representations were used by brahmanas while chanting the hymns of the Vedas and during sacrifices for the satisfaction of the Supreme." (Bhagavad Gita 17.23)

"Just as a spider brings forth from its heart its web and emits it through its mouth, the Supreme Personality of Godhead manifests Himself as the reverberating primeval vital air, comprising all sacred Vedic meters and full of transcendental pleasure. Thus the Lord, from the ethereal sky of His heart, creates the great and limitless Vedic sound by the agency of His mind, which conceives of variegated sounds such as the sparsas. The Vedic sound branches out in thousands of directions, adorned with the different letters expanded from the syllable om: the consonants, vowels, sibilants and semivowels. The Veda is then elaborated by many verbal varieties, expressed in different meters, each having four more syllables than the previous one. Ultimately the Lord again withdraws His manifestation of Vedic sound within Himself." (Bhagavata Purana 11.21.38-40)


Other traditions, interpretations and understandings

The Beatles reference the symbol in their Let It Be song "Across the Universe", singing "Jai Guru Deva Aum," meaning "Salute Guru Deva, Aum."

The Prodigy released a single called Narayana, which included as the chorus, the mantra 'Om Namo Narayana'. Meaning 'All Glories to Lord Narayan'.

John Coltrane released a work entitled "Om" which begins with an allusion to the Bhagavad Gita.

Dr. Wayne Dyer refers to "om" as "the sound of that which is manifested" in his book "Manifest Your Destiny".

Poet T.S. Eliot ends his masterpiece, The Wasteland, with "Shantih shantih shantih," the ending of the Upanishad. He seems to have deliberately left out the "Om" that precedes this phrase.

The symbol is also the main representive of the Goa trance music.

Rotary Blood Bank

Blood is a circulating tissue composed of fluid plasma and cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets). Medical terms related to blood often begin in hemo- or hemato- (BE: haemo- and haemato-) from the Greek word "haima" for "blood". Therefore, hemophobia is characterized by the abnormal fear of blood.

The main function of blood is to supply nutrients (oxygen, glucose) and constitutional elements to tissues and to remove waste products (such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid). Blood also enables cells (leukocytes, abnormal tumor cells) and different substances (amino acids, lipids, hormones) to be transported between tissues and organs. Problems with blood composition or circulation can lead to downstream tissue dysfunction.

The blood is circulated around the lungs and body by the pumping action of the heart.


Anatomy of blood

Blood is composed of several kinds of corpuscles; these formed elements of the blood constitute about 40% of whole blood. The other 60% is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, apearing yellow in color. The normal pH of human arterial blood is approximately 7.40 (normal range is 7.35-7.45). Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is acidic, while blood pH above 7.45 is alkaline. Blood pH along with arterial carbon dioxide tension (PaCO2) and HCO3 readings are helpful in determining the acid-base balance of the body. Blood is about 7% of the human body weight [1], so the average adult has a blood volume of about 5 liters, of which 2.7-3 liters is plasma. The combined surface area of all the erythrocytes in the human anatomy would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface.

The corpuscles are:

Red blood cells or erythrocytes (96%). In mammals, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles. They contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen.

The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and some other cells) are also marked by proteins that define different blood types.

White blood cells or leukocytes (3.0%), are part of the immune system; they destroy infectious agents.

Platelets or thrombocytes (1.0%) are responsible for blood clotting (coagulation)

Blood plasma is essentially an aqueous solution containing 96% water, 4% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other materials. Some components are:

albumin
blood clotting factors
immunoglobulins (antibodies)
hormones
various other proteins
various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chlorine)
Together, plasma and corpuscles form a non-Newtonian fluid whose flow properties are uniquely adapted to the architecture of the blood vessels.

Physiology of blood

Production and degradation

Blood cells are produced in the bone marrow; the process is termed hematopoiesis. The proteinaceous component is produced overwhelmingly in the liver, while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction maintained by the gut and the kidney.

Blood cells are degraded by the spleen and the Kupffer cells in the liver. The liver also clears proteins and amino acids. The kidney secretes many small proteins into the urine. Erythrocytes usually live up to 120 days before they are systematically replaced by new erythrocytes created by the process of hematopoiesis.


Transport of oxygen

Blood oxygenation is measured in several ways, but the most important measure is the hemoglobin saturation percentage. This is a non-linear (sigmoidal) function of the partial pressure of oxygen. About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at normal pressure is chemically combined with the Hb. Only 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to Hb. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species

With the exception of pulmonary and umbilical arteries and their corresponding veins, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and deliver it to the body via arterioles and capillaries, where the oxygen is consumed; afterwards, venules and veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

Differences in infrared absorption between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood form the basis for realtime oxygen saturation measurement in hospitals and ambulances.

Under normal conditions in humans, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 96-97% saturated with oxygen; 'deoxygenated' blood returning to the lungs is still approximately 75% saturated.[2][3] A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 20% of the level found in an adult's lungs) and so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) in order to extract as much oxygen as possible from this sparse supply.[4]

Insects

In insects, the blood (more properly called hemolymph) is not involved in the transport of oxygen. (Openings called tracheae allow oxygen from the air to diffuse directly to the tissues). Insect blood moves nutrients to the tissues and removes waste products.

Small invertebrates

In some small invertebrates like insects, oxygen is simply dissolved in the plasma. Larger animals use respiratory proteins to increase the oxygen carrying capacity. Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory protein found in nature. Hemocyanin (blue) contains copper and is found in crustaceans and mollusks. It is thought that tunicates (sea squirts) might use vanabins (proteins containing vanadium) for respiratory pigment (bright green, blue, or orange).

In many invertebrates, these oxygen-carrying proteins are freely soluble in the blood; in vertebrates they are contained in specialized red blood cells, allowing for a higher concentration of respiratory pigments without increasing viscosity or damaging blood filtering organs like the kidneys.


Transport of carbon dioxide

When systemic arterial blood flows through capillaries, carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues into the blood. Some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood. Some carbon dioxide reacts with hemoglobin to form carbamino hemoglobin. The remaining carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. Most carbon dioxide is transported through the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions.nileesh

Transport of hydrogen ions

Some oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin has a much greater affinity for H+ than does oxyhemoglobin so it binds most of the hydrogen ions.

Color

In humans and other hemoglobin-using creatures, oxygenated blood is a bright red in its color. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red, which can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. However, due to an optical effect caused by the way in which light penetrates through the skin, veins typically appear blue in color. This has led to a common misconception that before venous blood is exposed to air it is blue.


Health and disease

Ancient medicine

Hippocratic medicine considered blood one of the four humors (together with phlegm, yellow bile and black bile). As many diseases were thought to be due to an excess of blood, bloodletting and leeching were a common intervention until the 19th century (it is still used for some rare blood disorders).

In classical Greek medicine, blood was associated with air, springtime, and with a merry and gluttonous (sanguine) personality. It was also believed to be produced exclusively by the liver.


Diagnosis

Blood pressure and blood tests are amongst the most commonly performed diagnostic investigations that directly concern the blood.


Treatment

Blood transfusion is the most direct therapeutic use of blood. It is obtained from human donors by blood donation. As there are different blood types, and transfusion of the incorrect blood may cause severe complications, crossmatching is done to ascertain the correct type is transfused.

Other blood products administered intravenously are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate and specific coagulation factor concentrates.

Many forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract.

As stated above, some diseases are still treated by removing blood from the circulation.

It is the fluid part of the blood that saves lives where severe blood loss occurs, other preparations can be given such as ringers atopical plasma volume expander as a non-blood alternative, and these alternatives where used are rivalling blood use where used.


Mythology and religion

Due to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships; to be "related by blood" is to be related by ancestry or descendance, rather than marriage. This bears closely to bloodlines, and sayings such as "blood is thicker than water" and "bad blood", as well as "Blood brother".


Indo-European paganism

Among the Germanic tribes (such as the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings), blood was used during the sacrifices, the Blóts. The blood was considered to have the power of its originator and after the butchering the blood was sprinkled on the walls, on the statues of the gods and on the participants themselves. This act of sprinkling blood was called bleodsian in Old English and the terminology was borrowed by the Roman Catholic Church becoming to bless and blessing. The Hittite word for blood, ishar was a cognate to words for "oath" and "bond"


Judaism

In Judaism, blood cannot be consumed even in the smallest quantity (Leviticus 3:17 and elsewhere); this is reflected in the dietary laws. Blood is purged from meat by salting and pickling.

Other rituals involving blood are the covering of the blood of fowl and game after slaughtering (Leviticus 17:13); the reason given by the Torah is: "Because the life of every animal is [in] his blood" (ibid 17:14), although from its context in Leviticus 3:17 it would appear that blood cannot be consumed because it is to be used in the sacrificial service (known as the korbanot), in the Temple in Jerusalem.

Ironically, Judaism has historically been the religion to be most affected by blood libels.


Christianity

Christians believe that the Eucharist wine is, or represents, the blood of Jesus. This belief is rooted in the Last Supper as written in the four gospels of the Bible, in which Jesus stated to his disciples that the bread which they ate represented his body, and the wine represented his blood. "This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you." (Luke 22:20). The accepted Christian belief is that Jesus' blood atoned for the sins of the people.


Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses are prohibited from eating blood and accepting tranfusions of whole blood or any of red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma. They are permitted to accept fractions, and the acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH) and autologous blood salvage (cell saver) procedures.


Vampire legends

Vampires are fictional beings thought to cheat death by drinking the blood of the living.


Chinese and Japanese culture

In Chinese culture, it is often said that if a man's nose produces a small flow of blood, this signifies that he is experiencing sexual desire. This often appears in Chinese-language and Hong Kong films. This is also evident in Japanese culture and is parodied in anime and manga. Male characters will often be shown with a nosebleed if they have just seen a female nude or in little clothing, or if they have had an erotic thought or fantasy.

Blood donation is a process by which a blood donor voluntarily has blood drawn for storage in a blood bank or for subsequent use in a blood transfusion.


Blood donation

To understand the importance of the availability of a sustainable donated blood supply, the catch-cry of the Australian Red Cross Blood Service is, "80% of Australians will need blood in their lifetime, but less than 3% of Australians give blood each year." In the United States, the odds of knowing someone who will need blood are "97%", according to that branch of the Red Cross. According to polling conducted by [Canadian Blood Services], 52% of Canadians have needed blood or know someone who has.

Blood donations may be scheduled at local centres, or at times a "blood drive" will occur. These are events where a blood bank or other blood collecting organization will set up in a convenient location—such as a shopping centre, large employer, university, or a local church—for people to stop in without appointment during their daily routine to donate blood.

Process

The process of giving blood involves screening the donor, the actual donation, and a brief recovery period.

This applies to both whole blood donations and plasmapheresis (donating only one's plasma)


Before arriving at the donation site

In the days prior to donating blood, it is important that donors prepare themselves for a process that can temporarily weaken the body. Perhaps the most important thing is to eat and drink well. By drinking plenty of fluids the day before and of the donation, the donor can help prevent hypovolemia. Eating well is also important, partly because it can also help with hydration, but mostly because high nutrient levels give the body the raw materials it needs to respond quickly to the loss of blood. Eating regular, well-balanced meals in the days before the donation is important, but it is especially critical to have a good, low-fat meal before the donation. Eating foods high in iron (which has many dietary sources) is also a good idea for those giving whole blood or red blood cells. Finally, activities that promote general physical fitness (such as exercise, sex, and sleep) are all especially wise in the several days before a donation. However, donors should check their local blood bank's guidelines; some countries require donors to fast before donation to avoid interfering with screening.

Screening

Western countries typically impose screening for blood donor candidates. In the past, it was the practice in America and other countries to separate blood donations on the basis of race, ethnicity, or religion, or to exclude certain groups from the donor pool on those bases. Currently, in the United States, these practices have been eliminated, and donor attributes are considered only in terms of their likelihood to affect the probability of transmission of disease. All blood products in the U.S. are labeled as coming from either "paid" or "volunteer" donors, with paid units being more likely to transmit infection. (Several other countries avoid paid donations altogether for this reason.)

Other donor characteristics are also taken into account: starting in 1985, the American Red Cross and Food and Drug Administration policies prohibit accepting blood donations from gay/bisexual men, specifically from any "male who has had sex with another male since 1977, even once," [1] or from IV drug users or recent immigrants from certain nations with high rates of HIV infection. While the inclusion of homosexual/bisexual men on the prohibited list has created some controversy, the FDA & Red Cross cite the public policy need to protect the blood supply from HIV & similar diseases as justification for the ban. Policies vary in other countries; for instance, Australia formerly had a similar ban, but now only prohibits donating blood within one year after male-male sex (longer than the typical window period for HIV tests performed on donated blood).

Similarly important donor eligibility requirement in the US is related to concerns about variant Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease (vCJD): persons who have spent long periods of time in countries where "mad cow disease" is found [2], are not eligible to donate. As part of the screening interview, blood donors are questioned about past residency in countries on the exclusion list, tracing back as far as 1980. The list of countries of residence that may disqualify a potential donor, includes most of Western Europe (with stronger restrictions on those with past residence in the United Kingdom), Turkey, and all of Eastern Europe except Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic countries (those formerly part of the Soviet Union). From 1980 through 1996, if a person visited or resided in country on the exclusion list for a time that adds up to five years or more, such person is not eligible to donate; if a person spent time that adds up to three months or more in any country within the United Kingdom, they are indefinitely deferred.

When a donor arrives at a donation site, they typically fill out a consent form as well as answer an extensive questionnaire to help determine their eligibility. Questions include the donors' age, weight, most recent donation, current health, and various risk factors such as tattooing, drug use (recreational or performance enhancing), residency abroad, recent international travel, and sexual history. Answers are associated with the donor's blood, but not name, to provide anonymity.

Often the blood hemoglobin concentration will be checked next, typically performed by a phlebotomist. While various tests exist, the most common ones are:

hematocrit: done in some places. requires a centrifuge. A measurement of no less than 38% allows donation to continue.
colorimetric hemoglobin test using a hemoglobin photometer: a machine-read result from a chemical reaction on a testing strip.
copper sulfate screening test (aka "float test"): measures the specific gravity of the donor's blood by placing a drop into a copper sulfate solution. The solution is calibrated so that a hemoglobin concentration of in >12.5 g/dl (the cut-off in the U.S. for donation) sinks.

Additionally, the donor may indicate to not use their blood but still go through the blood drawing process, again to protect the individual's medical privacy. All blood is later tested for diseases including STDs. If a disease is found, the donor will be notified and their blood discarded. It is discouraged for individuals to use blood donation for the purpose of anonymous STD screening.


Donation

The blood donation itself happens next. The donor lies supine on a cushioned bench and extends an arm. The inner elbow is disinfected, and a cannula is inserted into a vein. The donor often has a tourniquet wrapped around his or her arm, or may be prompted to squeeze a ball repeatedly, to help speed the process. Blood flows from the vein, through the needle and a tube, and into a special collection bag which is placed on a small scale to measure the amount of blood withdrawn. Typically, around 500 millilitres, about a pint, is drawn during the blood donation process.

Apheresis

Rather than donating whole blood, a donor sometimes has the option to donate only some blood components while retaining others. This process is known as apheresis, and is more involved, time consuming, and requires more specialized equipment. The benefit is that more of the desired components can be concentrated and removed, and the donor is usually able to donate significantly more frequently than if whole blood had been removed. In some cases, the usefulness of the removed components is not as sensitive to blood type considerations.

The typical method of apheresis is to draw whole blood from the donor, then centrifuge the blood to separate its components (see apheresis for more information). The desired components (e.g. platelets, plasma) are removed and then the remaining components are returned to the donor.

Recovery

Once the donation is complete, the donor is given a bandage or gauze to stop further blood flow and is normally allowed to leave. Beverages and snacks may be provided to restore blood volume and blood sugar, and to settle the stomach. In some countries, stickers are worn by donors to show the donor's pride and to encourage others to give. The entire process, from screening through recovery, takes about one hour. The actual blood donation takes between four and fifteen minutes. Donors are discouraged from heavy exercise or lifting until the next day. Plasma volumes will return to normal in around 24 hours, while red blood cells are replaced by bone marrow into the circulatory system within about 3-5 weeks, and lost iron replaced over 6-8 weeks. This recovery process can be speeded by eating foods high in complex carbohydrates, iron, and other trace minerals. Due to the time frame required for iron replacement, donors are eligible to donate whole blood approximately eight to twelve weeks after the previous donation (the exact period varying by country); in the USA, the waiting period for the two red cell units apheresis donors is 112 days.


Storage

Cryopreservation of red blood cells is done to store special, rare red blood cells for up to 10 years. The cells are first incubated in a 40% glycerol solution which acts as a cryoprotectant ("antifreeze") within the cells. The units are then placed in special sterile containers in a deep freezer at less than -60°C.

Benefits

Donating blood may reduce risk for heart disease, and stimulates the generation of red blood cells. In patients prone to iron overload (e.g. due to hemochromatosis), blood donation prevents the accumulation of iron.

Anecdotally, elderly people in good health have reported feeling invigorated by giving blood on a regular basis.

The psychological benifits of donating blood is the sense the donor has that he/she has made a contribution and may have helped save a person's life.

Autologous donation

A person who anticipates the need for a blood transfusion at a later date (usually because of scheduled surgery) may make an autologous donation, in which their blood is stored and later transfused back into its original donor. Besides ensuring the availability of compatible blood (especially important for patients with rare blood types), this procedure also eliminates the risk of disease transmission from infected donors.

Mask

A mask is a piece of material or kit worn on the face. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and practical purposes.

The word mask came via French masque and either Italian maschera or Spanish máscara. Possible ancestors are Latin (not classical) mascus, masca = "ghost", and Arabic maskharah = "jester", "man in masquerade".

The 5000-year-old Mask of Warka is believed to be the oldest surviving mask.



Ceremonial uses

In ritual, social and religious functions, where participants wear them to represent spiritual or legendary figures. In some cultures it is also believed that the wearing of a mask will allow the wearer to take on the attributes of that mask's representation; i.e., a leopard-mask will induce the wearer to become leopard-like.


In Mexico and Central America, most towns have both a Christian name and an indigenous name, for example, Santiago Tianguistenco, or Santa Maria Axixitla. All Christian saints have a specific day in the year dedicated to them, and each town typically has a festival on that day, involving a combination of Christian and indigenous tradition. These festivals frequently include parades and street theatre that act out a story. The masks and costumes from these festivals have become collectors items. A mask used in such a festival is known as having been "danzada" or "danced." These hand-made, painted masks are typically made from wood and may use rope, animal horns or teeth, or rubber from tire inner tubes.



In Africa, specifically West Africa, masks play an important role in traditional ceremonies and theatrical dances. All African masks fall into one of four categories: the ancestor spirit, the mythological hero, the combination of ancestor and hero, and the animal spirit.



To prevent recognition


Criminals often use masks to avoid identification when commiting crimes. In many jurisidictions, it is an additional criminal offense to wear a mask while committing a crime; it is also often a crime to wear a mask at public assemblies and demonstrations.


Occasionally a witness for the prosecution appears in court in a mask to avoid being recognized by associates of the accused.


Participants in a black bloc at protests often wear masks, usually bandannas, to avoid recognition, and to try to protect against any riot control agents used.


Punitive


A "shameful" mask (Schandmaske in German) is devised for public humiliation; a popular reduced form are donkey ears for a bad ('dumb') pupil or student


Particularly uncomfortable types, such as an iron mask, are fit as devices for torture or corporal punishment

Masks were used to alienate and silence prisoners in Australian gaols in the late 19th century. They were made of white cloth and covered the face, leaving only the eyes visible.

Pani ka Matka

"Half of the thirst is quenched just by the fresh scent of matka water"

As you walk down any road in Delhi, you can come across heaps of matkas, surahis and umpteen other clay items. The very look at them gives a cool look though they might not carry an iota of status symbol or what you call `lifestyle'. Yet they have their prized place across all classes.

Earthen pitchers in all sizes, shapes and even colours are in vogue during days of scorching heat and humidity. Come summer and one can find hordes of buyers surrounding these potters haggling over the price of their chosen ware.

Truth is that no other object of as aesthetic value has stood the test of time as these matkas. Even in the works of Surdas and Kabir we find a mention of these earthen pitchers. They have been part of our household since the days of the Vedic society. Matkas are even associated with the childhood of Lord Krishna's antics when he used to relish targeting these earthen pitchers with his perfect aim!

What one laments is that the once omnipresent matka, however, is not nearly as ubiquitous as it used to be. That's sad. The unbridled craving for the latest electrical appliances has relegated the use of these traditional earthen pitchers to the hoi polloi. Says Sant Ram: "An earthen pitcher provides water with a certain fresh and pure aroma that even the world's latest and costliest refrigerator cannot provide.'' Also subscribing to this view is the well-known Unani medicine expert Hakeem Masood Baqai that the matka water does have some natural medicinal effect on intestines, giving them a cooling effect.

Besides, people suffering from chronic forms of sinus -- who are advised against consuming cold water -- can get that feeling of drinking refrigerated water. It doesn't harm them unlike chilled water from a cooler.

Voluptuous

This picture posted in challenge: Voluptuous

This picture posted in Brookston Weekly Photo Scavenger Hunt : Green

The adjective voluptuous has 3 meanings:

Meaning #1: having strong sexual appeal

Meaning #2: (of a woman's body) having a large bosom and pleasing curves

Meaning #3: furnishing gratification of the senses




7 Up (sometimes spelled Seven Up) is the brand name of a lemon-lime flavored soft drink marketed by Dr Pepper/Seven Up, Inc. (DPSU) in the United States (a unit of Cadbury-Schweppes since 1995). It has been bottled by Britvic in Britain since 1987. Outside the United States, the trademark to 7 Up belongs to PepsiCo. 7 Up, originally named Bib-Label Lithiated Lemon-Lime Soda, was concocted in 1929 in St. Louis, Missouri. It originally contained lithium citrate, a mood-stabilizing drug. Many early soft drinks contained herbal or pharmaceutical ingredients. This was removed in 1950. In 1998, in the first formula change since lithium was removed, 7 Up was flavor-enhanced, with no changes to sugar content or carbonation level. In 2006 the product was reformulated so that the product could be marketed as "100% Natural". This was achieved by eliminating the preservative calcium disodium EDTA, and replacing sodium citrate with potassium citrate to reduce the beverage's sodium content.

7 Up has traditionally employed unique advertising tactics. In the 1970s, an advertising campaign dubbed 7 Up the "un-cola," playing on the drink's lack of caffeine. The brand has been represented by mascots including Fido Dido and Cool Spot, a sunglasses-sporting red dot. During the early 1980s, actor/choreographer Geoffrey Holder appeared in several commercials, tweaking soft drink rivals by holding a Kola nut in one hand and an "un-Cola nut" (a lemon or lime) in the other. More recent advertising campaigns have challenged consumers with slogans such as "Are you an Un?", portraying 7 Up drinkers as rebellious non-conformists, and "Make 7 Up Yours", implying an aggressive double meaning by separating the slogan into "Make 7" and "Up Yours".

History

7 Up was created by Charles Leiper Grigg who launched his company The Howdy Corporation in 1920. His original product was the Howdy Orange drink. After spending over two years testing various formulations, Grigg decided on one that he hoped would meet his goal to create a refreshing and distinctive drink. He would launch the product just two weeks before the Stock Market Crash of 1929. Grigg never explained the origin of the 7 Up name, hence many folklores were born about the name. The most popular one is that Grigg named the soft drink after he saw a cattle brand with the number "7" and the letter "u." Other rumors suggest that the name reflects the drink's seven flavors and carbonation, or that Grigg came up with the name while playing dice.

The 1920s poor economy was just the beginning of the business challenges the product would face. In its early years, there were around 600 lemon-lime beverage brands being sold in the US. 7 Up was able to survive and become the market leader in the category by being one of the first to be nationally distributed as well as being marketed as more healthy than other sodas. Based on the success of the new drink, Grigg renamed his company to The Seven Up Company in 1936.

After establishing the category as more than a niche, major competitors set their sights on it such as The Coca-Cola Company with its Sprite brand introduced in 1961. Sprite would not challenge 7 Up's position seriously until the 1980s when Coke forced its major bottlers then distributing 7 Up to drop the beverage in deference to Sprite. 7 Up then became dependent on Pepsi's bottlers for distribution during the 1990s until PepsiCo launched its own serious entrant in the category with Sierra Mist in 2000. PepsiCo then adopted the previous Coca-Cola tactic and forced its bottlers to give up 7 Up for Sierra Mist which most did by 2003.

The result is that in the United States, DPSU does not have a network of bottlers and distributors, so some of their products are frequently bottled under contract by independent Coca-Cola or Pepsi bottlers, though in some areas independent distributors exist, either by Cadbury-Schweppes, or by individual independent bottling plants. These third-tier bottlers do not have the ability to reach much beyond major supermarket chains, so 7 Up is increasingly difficult to find in smaller stores and vending machines.

PepsiCo continues to distribute 7 Up outside of the USA (including Canada), in lieu of Sierra Mist; its status elsewhere is unclear.

Pop culture

When The Seven-Ups (1973) was filmed - all of the actors posed in front of a 7-Up delivery truck as part of a publicity stunt for advertising the film.

Seven-Up products appeared in the James Bond (007) film Moonraker (1979).

In 1983, as part of publicity for 7 Up in Mexico, the jingle on the spot was Kim Carnes' hit "Bette Davis Eyes" with the phrase "Alrededor del Mundo Seven Up" ("Around the World Seven Up") and the Pac-Man video game.

In the same year, it was exhibited in Chile, with the slogan "Seven Up, cristalina y refrescante" (Seven Up, crystalline and refreshing), with voice in off by Antonio Vodanovic, host of the famous Song's International Festival of Viña del Mar.

The red spot for 7 Up has been an interim mascot for 7 Up. He had a video game spinoff called Cool Spot.

Dholak

A boy playing Dholak in the train entertaining passengers. He was singing a popular Hindi song: "Kajrare Kajrare"

"Kajrare Kajrare" is a very hit Hindi song. Any marriage, party, discotheque just has to play this song.

Lyrics of Kajrare Kajrare:

Aisi nazar se dekha us zaalim ne chonk kar
Humne kaleja rakh diya chaku ki nok par

Wah wah, kamal ho gaya, woh raita phail gaya


Mera chain vain sab ujda, zaalim nazar hata le
Barbaad ho rahe hai ji
Tere apne shaher wale
Mera chain vain sab ujda zaalim nazar hata le
Meri angdai na tute tu aaja

Kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina
Ho kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina
Ho mere naina mere naina mere naina judwa naina
Kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina

Surme se likhe tere vaade, aankhon ki zubani aate hain
Mere rumalo pe lab tere, band ke nishani jaate hain
Ho teri baaton mein qimam ki khusbu hain
Ho tera aana bhi garmiyon ki lu hain
Aaja tute na tute na angdai
Ho meri angdai na tute tuu aaja

Kajrare kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina
Ho kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina
Ho mere naina mere naina mere naina mein chupke rehna
Ho kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina

Aankhein bhi kamal karti hain
Personal se sawal kartin hain
Palkon ko uthati bhi nahi
Parde ka khayal karti hain
Ho mera gum to kisise bhi chupta nahi
Dard hota hain dard jab chubhta nahi
Aaja tute na tute na angdai
Ho meri angdai na tute tu aaja

Kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina
Ho kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina
Ho tere naina tere naina humein daste hain tere naina
Ho kajrare kajrare mere kare kare naina

Woh tujhse milna purani dilli mein
Chod aaye nishani Dilli mein
Balli Maraan se Daribe talak
Teri meri kahani Dilli mein
Kaali kamli wale ko yaad karke
Tere kale kale naino ki kasam khate hain
Tere kale kale naino ki balanye le loon
Tere kale kale naino ko duwaye de loon
Meri jaan udaas hain hothon pe pyaas hain
Aaja re aaja re aaja re

Ho teri baaton mein qimam ki khushu hai
Ho tera aana bhi garmiyon ki lu hai
Ho meri angdai na tute tu aaja

Ho kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina
Ho tere naina tere naina tere naina judwa tere naina
Ho tere naina tere naina tere nainon mein chupke rehna
Ho kajrare kajrare tere kare kare naina
Kare kare naina kajrare kajrare mere kare kare naina


Dholak is a very popular folk drum of northern India. It is barrel shaped with a simple membrane on the right hand side. The left hand is also a single membrane with a special application on the inner surface. This application is a mixture of tar, clay and sand (dholak masala) which lowers the pitch and provides a well defined tone. There are two ways of tightening the dholak. Sometimes they are laced with rope, in which case, a series of metal rings are pulled to tighten the instrument. Sometimes metal turnbuckles are employed. It is said that this instrument used to occupy a position of considerable prestige. Today it is merely relegated to filmi and folk music.

Music:

Pakistan: Sounds of the Hindu Kush

The Mystic Fiddle Of The Proto-Gypsies: Masters Of Trance Music

Dhola Maru


Gypsies of Rajasthan

Passion of Pakistan


Folk Music and Musical Instruments of the Punjab: From Mustard Fields to Disco Lights

Folk Drumming in the Himalayas: A Linguistic Approach to Music

Music of Hindu Trinidad : Songs from the India Diaspora (Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology)

Chant the Names of God: Musical Culture in Bhojpuri-Speaking India

Musical Instruments of Tribal India

Footboard : Travelling dangerously

Ticket Issuing Weighing Machine

We will see these colorful machine with lights blinking and flashing on almost every major Railway Station in India.

This machine is manufactured by the Nortern Scales Company from New Delhi.
Northern Scales Company, New Delhi
B-31, Maya Puri Industrial Area, Phase-1 , New Delhi, Delhi, India, 110 064

You stand on the machine. Wait for the colorful disc to stop rotating. Put in a Rupee One coin. Wait for a few seconds. The machine makes a mechanical sound and a small cardboard ticket pops out.

You can see your weight on it and sometimes the picture of a Bollywood actor or actoress. You will also see a line or two to tell you how wonderfull you day would be..

Private Parking

This picture submitted in Lensday.com Challenge: Signs

Parking is the act of stopping a vehicle and leaving it unoccupied for more than a brief time. It is against the law virtually everywhere to park a vehicle in the middle of a highway or road. In all countries where motor vehicles are in common use, specialized parking facilities are routinely constructed in combination with most buildings to facilitate the coming and going of the buildings' users.

Parking facilities include indoor and outdoor private property belonging to a house, the side of the road, a parking lot or car park, and indoor and outdoor multi-level structures.

In the U.S., after the first public parking garage was opened in Boston, May 24, 1898, livery stables in urban centers began to be converted into garages. In cities of the Eastern US, many former livery stables, with lifts for carriages, continue to operate as garages today.

The following terms exemplify regional variations in language. All except carport refer to outdoor multi-level parking facilities. In some regional dialects, some of these phrases refer also to indoor or single-level facilities.

Milking

Milking is the act of removing milk from the mammary glands of an animal, typically cows (cattle) and goats. A rarely used term for the milking of cows is vaccimulgence, derived from the Latin words vacca ("cow") and emulgere ("to milk out"). Milking is also used to describe the removal of venom from spiders and snakes, for the production of antivenom.

Cows can be milked by hand or by machine.



Hand milking is performed by massaging and pulling down on the teats of the cows udder, squirting the milk into a bucket.

A milking machine is designed to extract milk using a vacuum. The teat cups of the machine are attached to the cows teats, the cups alternate between vacuum and normal air pressure to extract the milk without damaging the teats of the cow.


An udder is the mammary organ of cattle and some other mammals, including goats and sheep.

A cow has one udder and four teats or nipples, while goats have two teats on their udders. A cow's udder can hold up to around 40 litres of milk, and has a total weight of around 50 kg.

Udder care and hygiene in cows is important in milking, aiding uninterrupted and untainted milk production, and preventing mastitis.

The Water Buffalo is a very large ungulate and a member of the wild oxen family. It survives in the wild in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Vietnam and Thailand and is very widespread as a domestic animal in Asia, South America, North Africa and Europe. It is feral in northern Australia. Wild-living populations also exist in much of South-east Asia but their origin is uncertain: they may be the descendants of wild Water Buffalo, formerly domesticated ferals or a mixture of both. In Asia the population of wild Water Buffalo has become very sparse, and there is fear that no pure bred wild water buffalo exist anymore. Adults range in size from 250 kg to 500 kg for the domestic bred, but true wild water buffaloes can grow to very large size. Adult females typically weigh around 800kg, and the male up to 1200kg. The biggest wild water buffaloes are found in thailand, which is the home for the last 50 wild buffaloes or so. Wild water buffalo's form lacks the round belly of domestic buffaloes. Due to interbreeding with feral and domestic species, weights can vary greatly even in populations in close proximity, and this is the major cause leading the true wild buffaloes to extinction. Buffaloes seem to have originated from South Asia, from India to South-East Asia.

The classification of the Water Buffalo is uncertain. Some authorities list a single species, Bubalus arnee with two subspecies, the River (B. arnee bubalis) and Swamp (B. arnee carabanesis) Water Buffaloes; others regard them as closely related but separate species. The Swamp Buffalo is primarily found in the eastern half of Asia and has 48 chromosomes. The River Buffalo is mostly found in western half of Asia, and has 50 chromosomes. Fertile offspring occurs between the two. It does not readily hybridise with cattle which have 60 chromosomes.

Milk from both of these animals may be used by many peoples, and is the traditional raw material for mozzarella cheese and curd due to its higher fat content. Buffalo meat, sometimes called "Carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions and is also a major source of export revenue for India which has the largest population of buffaloes in the world. However, in many Aisan regions, buffalo's meat is less preferred due to its toughness. Water buffalo hide provides a tough and useful leather often used for shoes and motorcycle helmets.

Asia is the native home of the water buffalo, with 95% of the world population of water buffalo. Many Asian countries depend on the water buffalo as its primary bovine species. It is valuable for its meat and milk as well as the labour it performs. As of 1992 the Asian population was estimated at 141 million. The fat content of buffalo milk is the highest amongst farm animals and the butterfat is a major source of ghee in some Asian countries. Its success in Asia is evident by its extensive range. Both variants occur in Asia. River Buffalo are found in elevations of 2,800 m in Nepal, and Swamp Buffalo are found throughout the lowland tropics. Part of their success is due to their ability to thrive on poor foodstuffs and yet be valuable economically. Moreover they are much better suited to plough the muddy paddy fields as they are better adapted than white cattle (Bos taurus) to move in swamps.

In the wild, very few pockets of buffalo exist. The Indian wild buffalo is found in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Thailand. This buffalo has the largest horns of any living animal. The average spread is about 1 m (3 ft 3 in), but one bull shot in 1955 had horns measuring 4.24 m (13 ft 11 in) from tip to tip along the outside curve across the forehead. These massive battering rams protect the beast in the wild efficiently enough that even its predator seldom attacks a fully grown male. Tiger is their only predator, which can kill a full-grown male weighed 1000-1200kg, but only an experienced tiger will take them on, by hamstringing their hind legs first. When faced by a tiger, they form a line facing the predator and charge with noses out and horns laid back. Unlike its other family member, the gaur, The buffalo is a very dangerous animal known to charge without being provoked. It is generally found in swamplands and grass jungles and moves in herds.

Today, the estimated population of wild water buffaloes are about 4000, but, this number takes into account all wild population, including feral herds and hybrid buffaloes. In fact, it is possible that no true wild species exist anymore.

The water buffalo, or "Carabao," is the national animal of the Philippines.



BUFFALO MILK - THE HEALTHY ALTERNATIVE on BBC.co.uk